Introduction
The last 30 years have seen the rapid globalization of world markets (Drori, Meyer, &
Hwang, 2006, p. 118) with the result that international business is fast becoming a normal aspect
of the manager’s duties. Furthermore, the development of international trade blocks such as
NAFTA, the EU, and ASEAN, together with the opening up of the Indian and Chinese markets
(both mainland and offshore) has led to increasing numbers of managers working in quite
unfamiliar cultural settings. Business schools have done well in adapting their course offerings to
reflect this new international reality (Wankel & DeFillippi, 2004). It is now common to find
colleges and universities offering courses in international business, international marketing,
international management, and cross-cultural communication. Moreover, it is not unusual for
students to have an international dimension to their business education. In Europe, the Erasmus,
Tempus, and Socrates programs have done much to promote the internationalization of business
curricula and international student mobility. In the U.S., many colleges and universities allow
(and some strategically promote) international student exchanges. Some programs have
international travel modules built into their curricula. The result of such initiatives is that a career
in international business is now a viable option for many business school graduates (Institute for
Career Research, 2005).
Review of the Literature
Physical Challenges of International Business
Jet Lag.
One of the challenges I have faced in teaching international business in the United States
is that a significant number of my students have never traveled to another country. In polling
students in his classes, it appears that the majority of students that traveled to other countries
have engaged in trans-latitudinal travel (north to Canada or south to Central/Latin America)
rather than in trans-meridian travel (west to Asia or east to Europe). Those who have not traveled
have no experience of the disorientation that travel can bring. Those who have traveled—but not
rapidly over several time zones to strange cultures—have no concept of the additional
disorientation that jet lag can bring.
Health
A second major physical challenge that may face the international business traveler is
staying healthy. Considerable research indicates that long distance air travel can increase the
possibility of cross-infection of disease (Spengler & Wilson, 2003). This is particularly the case
where there are lower air ventilation rates in the aircraft cabin (Brundrett, 2001). It is advisable
for international business travelers to take medical supplies with them during their journey
(Deacon & McCulloch, 1990). Ocular irritation is a common problem for air travelers and cabin
crew (Lindgren, et al., 2002), so it is advisable for business travelers to include eye drops in their
medical kit to help alleviate the symptoms of sore eyes. The simple rule is that it is more difficult
for the international business manager to negotiate successfully when his or her body aches. ]
Personal Safety and Security
The international business traveler is at risk in a number of situations. There is increased
risk of terrorist activities in the world today, and international business travelers must be aware
of such risks (Fatehi, 2008; Scotti, 1986). However, international business travelers are more
likely to be mugged, drugged, or kidnapped (Wayne & Conde, 2003) than involved in a terrorist
incident. There are a number of reasons for this. First, whether the business professionals are
from European, African-American, Asian, or Latin backgrounds, they will look distinctly foreign
in many parts of the world. Looking different, speaking with different accents, and not being
familiar with local costumes, currency, or culture all increase the risks of becoming a target for
criminal activity.
Secondly, activities that are regarded as safe in a home environment may be less so
overseas. Taxi travel and hotel room safety are two areas of potential risk. In many Central and
Latin American countries (e.g., Mexico, Argentina), taxis circulate in abundance. However, not
all taxis are safe. For example, in Mexico it is much safer to get a taxi from a licensed taxi stand
rather than to stop one in the street. When arriving at an airport, international business travelers
would be safer if they arrange for hotel cars to pick them up. Third, hotel room occupancy is not
without risk (Leggat & Klein, 2001). Nearly all travel organizations urge travelers never to open
their hotel doors without looking through the peephole and never to let strangers into their rooms
(Florio, 2006).
Emotional Challenges of International Business
Each year students approach me because they are interested in careers in international
business. However, when asked why, some of them have shared that they think it would be
rather glamorous to travel around the world, stay in fancy hotels, and negotiate significant
contracts. It would be disingenuous not to admit that such moments do exist; however, they are
not the norm. The reality is far more frequently one of high stress, loneliness, isolation, and
significant work pressure.
Culture
Students should be made aware of how disorientating it is to land in a completely
unfamiliar environment, one in which there are few English language cues. Travelers to
countries that don’t use the Latin alphabet (e.g., Russia, China, Japan, Thailand, Mongolia) are
not able to infer meanings from street signs, menus, or other forms of written documentation. All
the shop and street signage is often in an unfamiliar language that looks so very foreign. It is
very disorientating not to be able to read addresses, restroom signs, shop names, and menus and
not able to ask for directions on the street (Marx, 1999).
Culture shock not only forces travelers to rethink their host culture, but also their native
culture. Responses to this aspect of culture shock vary. Sometimes it leads to the reinforcement
of an ethnocentric belief in the superiority of one’s own culture. At other times culture shock
leads to a recognition of some of the shallow or unsavory aspects of one’s own native culture
(Furnham & Bochner, 1986; Ward, Bochner, & Furnham, 2001). Significant research has been
conducted to help managers overcome culture shock so that they stay the full length of their
international assignment (Gregersen & Black, 1990). Other useful research is being conducted
into how to effectively manage the cultural re-entry of expatriate managers once they return to
their home country (Adler, 1981).
Relationships
International business brings with it various types of stress including stress as a result of
the disruption of family and marital life. Research shows that relationships are disrupted
regardless of whether the spouse stays at home or travels with his or her partner (Espino,
Sundstrom, Frick, Jacobs, & Peters, 2002). Trying to communicate across multiple time zones
only exacerbates the problems of geographical separation. Research indicates that the type of
stress and disruption experienced is dependent upon such factors as the non-traveling spouse’s
choice of career (Stephens & Black, 1991), the gender of the non-traveling spouse (Linehan &
Walsh, 2001), and the degree of choice given over the international assignment (Suutari &
Brewster, 2000).
The last 30 years have seen the rapid globalization of world markets (Drori, Meyer, &
Hwang, 2006, p. 118) with the result that international business is fast becoming a normal aspect
of the manager’s duties. Furthermore, the development of international trade blocks such as
NAFTA, the EU, and ASEAN, together with the opening up of the Indian and Chinese markets
(both mainland and offshore) has led to increasing numbers of managers working in quite
unfamiliar cultural settings. Business schools have done well in adapting their course offerings to
reflect this new international reality (Wankel & DeFillippi, 2004). It is now common to find
colleges and universities offering courses in international business, international marketing,
international management, and cross-cultural communication. Moreover, it is not unusual for
students to have an international dimension to their business education. In Europe, the Erasmus,
Tempus, and Socrates programs have done much to promote the internationalization of business
curricula and international student mobility. In the U.S., many colleges and universities allow
(and some strategically promote) international student exchanges. Some programs have
international travel modules built into their curricula. The result of such initiatives is that a career
in international business is now a viable option for many business school graduates (Institute for
Career Research, 2005).
Review of the Literature
Physical Challenges of International Business
Jet Lag.
One of the challenges I have faced in teaching international business in the United States
is that a significant number of my students have never traveled to another country. In polling
students in his classes, it appears that the majority of students that traveled to other countries
have engaged in trans-latitudinal travel (north to Canada or south to Central/Latin America)
rather than in trans-meridian travel (west to Asia or east to Europe). Those who have not traveled
have no experience of the disorientation that travel can bring. Those who have traveled—but not
rapidly over several time zones to strange cultures—have no concept of the additional
disorientation that jet lag can bring.
Health
A second major physical challenge that may face the international business traveler is
staying healthy. Considerable research indicates that long distance air travel can increase the
possibility of cross-infection of disease (Spengler & Wilson, 2003). This is particularly the case
where there are lower air ventilation rates in the aircraft cabin (Brundrett, 2001). It is advisable
for international business travelers to take medical supplies with them during their journey
(Deacon & McCulloch, 1990). Ocular irritation is a common problem for air travelers and cabin
crew (Lindgren, et al., 2002), so it is advisable for business travelers to include eye drops in their
medical kit to help alleviate the symptoms of sore eyes. The simple rule is that it is more difficult
for the international business manager to negotiate successfully when his or her body aches. ]
Personal Safety and Security
The international business traveler is at risk in a number of situations. There is increased
risk of terrorist activities in the world today, and international business travelers must be aware
of such risks (Fatehi, 2008; Scotti, 1986). However, international business travelers are more
likely to be mugged, drugged, or kidnapped (Wayne & Conde, 2003) than involved in a terrorist
incident. There are a number of reasons for this. First, whether the business professionals are
from European, African-American, Asian, or Latin backgrounds, they will look distinctly foreign
in many parts of the world. Looking different, speaking with different accents, and not being
familiar with local costumes, currency, or culture all increase the risks of becoming a target for
criminal activity.
Secondly, activities that are regarded as safe in a home environment may be less so
overseas. Taxi travel and hotel room safety are two areas of potential risk. In many Central and
Latin American countries (e.g., Mexico, Argentina), taxis circulate in abundance. However, not
all taxis are safe. For example, in Mexico it is much safer to get a taxi from a licensed taxi stand
rather than to stop one in the street. When arriving at an airport, international business travelers
would be safer if they arrange for hotel cars to pick them up. Third, hotel room occupancy is not
without risk (Leggat & Klein, 2001). Nearly all travel organizations urge travelers never to open
their hotel doors without looking through the peephole and never to let strangers into their rooms
(Florio, 2006).
Emotional Challenges of International Business
Each year students approach me because they are interested in careers in international
business. However, when asked why, some of them have shared that they think it would be
rather glamorous to travel around the world, stay in fancy hotels, and negotiate significant
contracts. It would be disingenuous not to admit that such moments do exist; however, they are
not the norm. The reality is far more frequently one of high stress, loneliness, isolation, and
significant work pressure.
Culture
Students should be made aware of how disorientating it is to land in a completely
unfamiliar environment, one in which there are few English language cues. Travelers to
countries that don’t use the Latin alphabet (e.g., Russia, China, Japan, Thailand, Mongolia) are
not able to infer meanings from street signs, menus, or other forms of written documentation. All
the shop and street signage is often in an unfamiliar language that looks so very foreign. It is
very disorientating not to be able to read addresses, restroom signs, shop names, and menus and
not able to ask for directions on the street (Marx, 1999).
Culture shock not only forces travelers to rethink their host culture, but also their native
culture. Responses to this aspect of culture shock vary. Sometimes it leads to the reinforcement
of an ethnocentric belief in the superiority of one’s own culture. At other times culture shock
leads to a recognition of some of the shallow or unsavory aspects of one’s own native culture
(Furnham & Bochner, 1986; Ward, Bochner, & Furnham, 2001). Significant research has been
conducted to help managers overcome culture shock so that they stay the full length of their
international assignment (Gregersen & Black, 1990). Other useful research is being conducted
into how to effectively manage the cultural re-entry of expatriate managers once they return to
their home country (Adler, 1981).
Relationships
International business brings with it various types of stress including stress as a result of
the disruption of family and marital life. Research shows that relationships are disrupted
regardless of whether the spouse stays at home or travels with his or her partner (Espino,
Sundstrom, Frick, Jacobs, & Peters, 2002). Trying to communicate across multiple time zones
only exacerbates the problems of geographical separation. Research indicates that the type of
stress and disruption experienced is dependent upon such factors as the non-traveling spouse’s
choice of career (Stephens & Black, 1991), the gender of the non-traveling spouse (Linehan &
Walsh, 2001), and the degree of choice given over the international assignment (Suutari &
Brewster, 2000).
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